CBSE Class 11 History Notes Chapter 1 Writing and City Life

 Geography: 

• City life began in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek words ‘mesos’, meaning middle, and ‘potamos’, meaning river.)
• It is a flat land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers that is now part of the Republic of Iraq.
•  In the north, there is a stretch of upland called a steppe, where animal herding offers people a better livelihood than agriculture
• Agriculture began between 7000 and 6000 BCE.
• Soil was very fertile here but agriculture was threatened because of natural causes.
• Ur, Lagash, Kish, Uruk and Mari were some of its important cities.
• The excavation work started 150 years ago

Urbanisation

• Mesopotamian civilization was based on definite plan. 
• Cities and towns are develop when an economy develops in spheres other than food production that it becomes an advantage for people to cluster in towns.
• Urban economies comprise besides food production, trade, manufactures and services.
•  There is social organisation in place
• Helpful for the city manufacturers.
• The division of labour is a mark of urban life.

TIMELINE
Years	Event
C. 7000 – 6000 BCE	Beginning of agriculture in the northern Mesopotamian plains
C. 5000 BCE	Earliest temples in southern Mesopotamia built
C. 3200 BCE	First writing in Mesopotamia
C. 3000 BCE	Uruk develops into a huge city, increasing use of bronze tools
C. 2700 – 2500 BCE	Early kings, including, possibly, the legendary ruler Gilgamesh
C. 2600 BCE	Development of the cuneiform script
C. 2400 BCE	Replacement of Sumerian by Akkadian
2370 BCE	Sargon, king of Akkad
C. 2000 BCE	Spread of cuneiform writing to Syria, Turkey and Egypt; Mari and Babylon emerge as important urban centres
C. 1800 BCE	Mathematical texts composed; Sumerian no longer spoken
C. 1100 BCE	Establishment of the Assyrian kingdom
C. 1000 BCE	Use of iron
720-610 BCE	Assyrian empire
668-627 BCE	Rule of Assurbanipal
331 BCE	Alexander conquers Bablyon

1. Mesopotamian Writing:

• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a variety of goods
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

Urbanization and Temples:

1. Origins of Cities (5000 BCE onward): Settlements began to evolve into cities, with some forming around temples or becoming centers of trade.
2. Temple Evolution:
   • Early temples were small shrines of unbaked bricks and later expanded in size and complexity.
   • Temples functioned as the houses of gods, featuring distinct architectural elements such as walls with regular indentations.
3. Role of Temples:
   • Served as centers of worship and economic activity.
   • Managed agricultural fields, fisheries, herds, and processing activities like oil pressing, grain grinding, and textile production.
   • Acted as employers, record-keepers, and organizers of community resources.

Challenges in Agriculture:

1. Natural and Man-made Problems:
   • Flooding, channel shifts, and disputes over water management often disrupted agricultural stability.
   • Conflicts over land and water were common in the countryside.
2. Relocation of Villages: Due to these challenges, settlements were periodically abandoned and moved.

Emergence of Kingship:

1. Warfare and Leadership:
   • War leaders gained influence through victories, distributing loot and employing captives.
   • Chiefs who contributed to community welfare gained lasting power and status.
2. Connection with Temples:
   • Victorious leaders offered booty to gods and enhanced temples, cementing their authority.
   • They organized temple wealth distribution efficiently, as illustrated in myths like that of Enmerkar.

Population Consolidation:

1. Centralization around Leaders:
   • Villagers settled near leaders for safety and military mobilization.
   • Cities like Uruk grew significantly due to population shifts.
2. Urban Features of Uruk:
   • Expanded from 250 hectares (c. 3000 BCE) to 400 hectares (c. 2800 BCE).
   • Defensive walls and organized labor for temple construction indicated advanced urban organization.

Economic and Technological Advances:

1. Compulsory Labor: Labor was often directed toward temple or royal projects, with workers compensated in rations.
2. Technological Developments:
• Use of bronze tools and architectural innovations like brick columns.
• Creation of colorful mosaics with clay cones and advancements in sculpture using imported stone.
• Introduction of the potter’s wheel, enabling mass production of pottery—a hallmark of urban economies.

Social Hierarchy:

1. Ruling Elite:

   • A small segment of society controlled a significant portion of wealth.
   • The lavish graves of kings and queens in Ur contained luxurious items like gold jewelry, ceremonial daggers, lapis lazuli inlays, and musical instruments, highlighting social inequality.

2. Ordinary People:

   • Most people lived simpler lives. Their houses, streets, and burial practices contrast sharply with the wealth of the elite.

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Family and Social Customs:

1. Nuclear Families:

   • The nuclear family was the societal norm, although married sons often lived with their parents.
   • The father was the head of the family and managed property inheritance.

2. Marriage Customs:

   • Marriage involved mutual consent, exchanges of gifts, and temple offerings.
   • The bride received a share of her father’s inheritance when she joined her husband’s household.

3. Inheritance:

   • Sons inherited property, including houses, herds, and fields, from their fathers.

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Urban Characteristics of Ur:

1. City Layout:

   • Streets were narrow and winding, unsuitable for wheeled carts. Goods were transported by donkeys.
   • The irregularity of house plots and streets suggests a lack of formal town planning.

2. Sanitation and Drainage:

   • Streets lacked drains; household refuse was disposed of directly onto the streets.
   • Homes featured inner courtyard drainage systems, with sloping roofs channeling rainwater into sumps.
   • Street levels rose over time due to accumulated refuse, requiring house thresholds to be raised.

3. House Design:

   • Houses had inward-sloping roofs and courtyards to maintain privacy.
   • Light entered homes through doorways opening into the courtyards rather than through windows.

4. Superstitions:

   • Omens related to houses were recorded on tablets. For example:
     • A raised threshold symbolized wealth.
     • A front door not facing another house was considered lucky.
     • Doors opening outward signified marital discord.

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Burial Practices:

1. Town Cemetery:
   • Most people were buried in the town cemetery, with distinctions between royal and commoner graves.
2. Household Burials:
• A few individuals were buried under the floors of ordinary houses, reflecting varied burial practices.

Location and Environment:

1. Geography of Mari:

   • Located upstream on the Euphrates, Mari was not part of the highly productive southern plain but stood in a region where agriculture and pastoralism coexisted.
   • The area's economy relied on the complementary roles of farming and herding.

2. Mixed Economy:

   • Some communities combined farming with pastoralism, while others focused exclusively on herding.
   • Pastoralists contributed to the agrarian economy by trading livestock, cheese, leather, and meat in exchange for grain, tools, and other goods.
   • Manure from herds was valuable for fertilizing agricultural fields.

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Tensions and Cooperation:

1. Conflict:

   • Shepherds sometimes damaged crops by crossing fields with their flocks.
   • Mobile pastoralists could raid agricultural settlements, stealing stored goods.
   • Farmers might restrict pastoralists’ access to water sources, leading to disputes.

2. Cooperation:

   • Despite potential conflicts, herders and farmers depended on each other economically.
   • Exchanges between the two groups were essential for sustaining the region’s economy.

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Nomadic Influence and Integration:

1. Nomads in Mesopotamia:

   • Nomadic groups from the western desert periodically entered Mesopotamia’s agricultural zones, bringing their flocks during summer.
   • These groups served various roles, such as herders, harvest laborers, or soldiers for hire.
   • Some nomads settled permanently, becoming prosperous and even rulers.

2. Rise of Pastoral Rulers:

   • Groups like the Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians, and Aramaeans originated from nomadic or pastoral backgrounds and rose to power.
   • The kings of Mari were Amorites, distinguishable by their unique dress and culture.

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Cultural Exchange and Diversity:

1. Religion:
   • The Amorite rulers of Mari honored Mesopotamian gods but also built a temple for Dagan, the god of the steppe, reflecting their pastoral roots.
2. Cultural Intermixture:
   • Mesopotamian society was open to diverse influences, integrating various cultures and traditions.
   • This inclusiveness contributed to the vitality and resilience of Mesopotamian civilization.

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