NIOS CLASS 12 HISTORY CHAPTER-1 UNDERSTANDING INDIAN HISTORY

January 14, 2025

1.1 SOURCES FOR RECONSTRUCTING ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY




  • The Need for Source Material:

    • Historians require source material to reconstruct the past.
    • Sources themselves do not "speak"; they need interpretation.
    • A historian must analyze, cross-check, and interpret sources to present meaningful explanations.

  • Examples of Historical Interpretation:

    • Discovery of Harappa:
      • Charles Masson (1826) noticed high walls and towers in Harappa.
      • Sir Alexander Cunningham (1870s) collected seals.
      • John Marshall (1920s) identified it as part of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization.
    • Cross-checking Evidence:
      • King Harsha’s biographer, Banabhatta, in Harshacharita, does not mention Harsha's defeat.
      • Pulakesin II’s inscriptions claim victory over Harsha.
      • This discrepancy shows the importance of corroborating different sources.

  • Concept of History (Itihasa):

    • "Itihasa" means "thus it was" and is translated as "history."
    • Initially, only written records were accepted as authentic historical sources.
    • Oral evidence (myths, folk songs) was excluded due to concerns about authenticity.

  • Unconventional Sources in History:

    • Today, myths, oral traditions, and cultural traits are being studied innovatively.
    • These sources are used alongside written records to understand history better.

  • Case Study: Mahabharata:

    • The Mahabharata narrates a conflict between warring cousins.
    • Historians debate whether the war actually happened.
    • Sutas (bards) likely composed and circulated the story orally, preserving it in human memory.

    1.2 RELIGIOUS LITERATURE

    Ancient Indian Texts and Literature

    1. Vedic Literature (c. 1500–500 B.C.):

      • The Vedas are four in number:
        • Rig Veda: Contains prayers and hymns.
        • Sama Veda: Focuses on musical chants and hymns.
        • Yajur Veda: Includes rituals and sacrificial formulas.
        • Atharva Veda: Contains prayers, rituals, magical spells, and mythological stories.
      • The Upanishads, also known as Vedanta, discuss philosophical ideas like atma (soul) and paramatma (supreme soul).

    2. Epics (c. A.D. 400):

      • Mahabharata:
        • Attributed to sage Vyasa.
        • Initially called Jaya Gita with 8800 verses.
        • Expanded to 24,000 verses (Bharata) and later to 100,000 verses (Mahabharata).
      • Ramayana:
        • Composed by Valmiki.
        • Initially had 6000 verses, later expanded to 12,000, and eventually 24,000 verses.

    3. Post-Vedic Ritual Literature (c. 600–300 B.C.):

      • Sutras: Texts focusing on rituals and moral values.
        • Shrautasutras: Detail public sacrifices by rulers.
        • Grihyasutras: Prescribe domestic rituals like birth ceremonies, sacred thread ceremonies, marriages, and funerals.

    4. Jaina and Buddhist Literature:

      • Buddhist Texts:
        • Written in Pali.
        • Known as the Tripitakas ("Three Baskets"):
          • Suttapitaka: Discourses of Buddha.
          • Vinayapitaka: Monastic rules.
          • Abhidhammapitaka: Philosophical teachings.
        • The Jatakas narrate stories of Buddha’s previous births (over 550) and provide insight into the socio-economic conditions between the 5th and 2nd centuries B.C.
      • Jaina Texts:
        • Written in Prakrit and compiled in the 6th century A.D. at Vallabhi (Gujarat).
        • Known as the Angas, containing the philosophical concepts of Jainism.

    1.3 SECULAR LITERATURE 

    Non-Religious Ancient Indian Literature

    1. Law and Legal Texts:

      • Dharmashastras:
        • Prescribe duties for different social groups and punishments for crimes like theft, murder, and adultery.
        • Earliest law book: Manu Smriti (translated by the British and formed the basis of Hindu law).
      • Arthashastra (by Kautilya):
        • A treatise on economy and polity during the Mauryan period.
        • Provides rich insights into governance, economics, and administration.

    2. Grammatical Texts:

      • Ashtadhyayi (by Panini):
        • The earliest and most important work on Sanskrit grammar (dated around 700 B.C.).
        • Useful for historical reconstruction.

    3. Creative Literature:

      • Works of Kalidasa (Gupta Period):
        • Famous compositions include Abhijnanashakuntalam, Ritusamhara, and Meghadutam.
        • Offer glimpses into the social and cultural life of the Gupta era.

    4. Historical Texts:

      • Rajatarangini (by Kalhana):
        • Chronicles the history of Kashmir (12th century A.D.).
      • Charitras (Biographies):
        • Written by court poets to praise their patrons.
        • Example: Harshacharita by Banabhatta, praising King Harshavardhana.
        • Such texts often exaggerate achievements and must be studied critically.

    5. Sangam Literature (South Indian Literature):

      • Written in Tamil and secular in nature.
      • Produced during the Sangam Age (c. 300 B.C.–A.D. 300) in assemblies patronized by kings and chiefs.
      • Includes:
        • Short and long poems in praise of heroes, recited in royal courts.
        • Epics: Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.
      • Historical Value:
        • Provides insights into South Indian society, economy, and polity.
        • Confirmed by archaeological findings and accounts of foreign travelers.

    1.4 NON-LITERARY SOURCES

     INSCRIPTIONS


    Inscriptions as Historical Sources

    1. Definition and Characteristics of Inscriptions:

      • Permanent writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone, metal, or terracotta.
      • Study of inscriptions is called epigraphy.
      • Serve as records of achievements, activities, and ideas of those who commissioned them.
      • Types of inscriptions:
        • Prashastis: Compositions by poets glorifying kings and patrons.
        • Donation records for religious purposes.
      • Some inscriptions carry dates, while others are dated using palaeography (study of ancient writing styles).

    2. Languages and Scripts Used in Inscriptions:

      • Early inscriptions were primarily in Prakrit (a language of ordinary people).
      • Later, Tamil and Sanskrit were also used.
      • Key scripts:
        • Brahmi: Written from left to right; deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
        • Kharosthi: Written from right to left.
        • Aramaic and Greek: Used for inscriptions in Afghanistan.

    3. Significant Inscriptions in Indian History:

      • Ashokan Inscriptions (Mauryan Period):
        • Ashoka was the first ruler to issue inscriptions.
        • Most inscriptions were in Prakrit and Brahmi script; some in Kharosthi.
        • Helped in understanding Ashoka’s religious and administrative policies.
      • Land Grant Inscriptions (Post-Mauryan Period):
        • From the 1st century B.C., kings began granting land to religious people.
        • Satavahana kings of the Deccan were pioneers in land grants.
        • Inscriptions record details of concessions given to recipients.
        • Written on stone and copper plates (charters).

    4. Uses of Inscriptions:

      • Provide insights into religious, administrative, and economic activities.
      • Reveal details about grants, donations, and royal proclamations.
      • Offer chronological evidence for historical reconstruction.

    5. Limitations of Inscriptions:

      • Letters may be faintly engraved, making reconstructions uncertain.
      • Damage or missing letters can affect accuracy.
      • Words and phrases may have context-specific meanings, making interpretation challenging.

    1.5 COINS

    Coins as Historical Sources

    1. Study of Coins:

      • The study of coins is called numismatics.
      • Involves analyzing visual elements such as scripts, images, and metallurgical content.

    2. Types of Ancient Coins in India:

      • Punch-marked coins (c. 6th century B.C. onwards):
        • Earliest coins, made of silver and copper.
        • Contained symbols but no names or images of rulers.
      • Indo-Greek coins (c. 2nd century B.C.):
        • First coins to bear names and images of rulers.
      • Kushana coins (c. 1st century A.D.):
        • First gold coins in India.
      • Gupta coins (c. 4th–6th centuries A.D.):
        • Known for their spectacular designs and purity of gold content.

    3. Significance of Coins in History:

      • Economic Information:
        • Coins were a medium of exchange, offering insights into trade and commerce.
        • Guilds or associations of merchants and craftsmen issued coins with royal permission, highlighting the role of trade and crafts.
      • Religious and Artistic Insights:
        • Coins depict kings, gods, and religious symbols.
        • Provide valuable information about the art, religion, and cultural practices of the time.

    1.6 ARCHAEOLOGY


    Archaeology as a Source of Indian History

    1. Definition and Importance:

      • Archaeology: The scientific study of material remains of the past through systematic excavation of old mounds.
      • Helps understand prehistory, a period before written records.
      • Essential for reconstructing the lives of ancient people through remains like tools, pottery, and structures.

    2. Key Insights from Archaeology:

      • Writing in India began around 2500 B.C. during the Indus culture, but the script remains undeciphered.
      • The Harappan culture belongs to the proto-historic phase, as it involved writing not yet understood.
      • Brahmi script, used in Ashokan inscriptions, is the earliest deciphered script, dating to the 3rd century B.C.
      • Excavations reveal details of settlements, housing layouts, pottery, tools, and dietary practices of the past.
      • Megalithic graves in South India, marked by large stones, include tools, weapons, and pottery, providing insights into life before the 3rd century B.C.

    3. Scientific Dating Techniques:

      • Radiocarbon (C14) dating:
        • Measures the decay of radioactive carbon in organic objects to determine their age.
      • Pollen analysis: Examines plant residues to study climate and vegetation.
        • Suggests agriculture in Kashmir and Rajasthan began around 7000–6000 B.C.

    4. Scientific Analysis of Artefacts:

      • Metal artefacts: Analysis reveals the source of metals and the stages of metal technology.
      • Geological studies:
        • Provide insights into the history of soil, rocks, and the environment of prehistoric times.
        • Show interaction between humans, plants, animals, and the environment.

    5. Interdisciplinary Approach:

      • Archaeological findings are enriched by geological and biological studies.
      • Together, they reconstruct the development of human history and the relationship between humans and their environment.

    1.7 ACCOUNT OF FOREIGN TRAVELLERS


  • Significance of Foreign Accounts:

    • Foreign visitors, including Greeks, Romans, and Chinese, came to India as ambassadors, travelers, or seekers of religious knowledge.
    • Their writings provide valuable insights into Indian society, administration, economy, and culture.

  • Greek and Roman Accounts:

    • Megasthenes (Greek Ambassador):
      • Came to the court of Chandragupta Maurya and wrote Indika.
      • Although the original text is lost, fragments quoted by later Greek writers offer information about:
        • Mauryan administration.
        • Social classes.
        • Economic activities.
    • Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography (Greek texts):
      • Provide details about Indian ports and commodities involved in trade with the Roman Empire during the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D.

  • Chinese Travelers:

    • Fa-Hsien (5th Century A.D.):
      • A Buddhist monk who visited India during the Gupta period.
      • Described the social, religious, and cultural conditions of the time.
    • Hsuan Tsang (7th Century A.D.):
      • Traveled to India during the reign of Harshavardhana.
      • Provided detailed accounts of:
        • Indian society and Buddhism.
        • The glory of Nalanda University in Bihar.

    1.8 CHANGING NOTIONS OF HISTORY


    1. Indian vs. Western Historical Perspectives:

      • Western scholars claimed ancient Indians lacked a sense of history, but this is inaccurate.
      • Indians documented history differently, focusing less on chronology and more on themes, such as the Puranas, which detail the four ages (Krita, Treita, Dvapara, and Kali) and genealogies of rulers and dynasties.
      • Inscriptions provide genealogical and achievement records, showing an understanding of time and space.

    2. Beginnings of Modern Indian Historiography:

      • Initiated in 1765 when the East India Company started governing Bengal and Bihar.
      • Manu Smriti was translated into English in 1776 for understanding Hindu law.
      • Establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 facilitated translations of Indian religious and classical texts.
      • Scholars like Max Mueller contributed to Indological studies, aiding British administrative and missionary objectives.

    3. Colonial Interpretations:

      • British scholars like Vincent A. Smith wrote pro-British histories, such as Early History of India (1904), to justify colonial rule.
      • These works often portrayed Indians as resistant to change and accustomed to despotism.

    4. Nationalist Historiography:

      • Indian scholars, educated in Western methods, countered British interpretations with nationalist histories.
      • Key historians:
        • R.G. Bhandarkar and V.K. Rajwade: Reconstructed social and political histories, criticized social evils, and promoted reforms.
        • P.V. Kane: Authored History of Dharmasastra, analyzing Indian society.
        • D.R. Bhandarkar: Studied ancient political institutions.
        • H.C. Raychaudhuri: Critiqued Vincent Smith and reconstructed ancient Indian history.
        • R.C. Majumdar: Edited History and Culture of Indian People, a multi-volume work.
        • K.P. Jayaswal: Highlighted Indian republics and self-governance.

    5. Post-Independence Trends:

      • Shift from political to social and economic history.
      • Pioneering works:
        • A.L. Basham's The Wonder That Was India.
        • D.D. Kosambi's An Introduction to the Study of Indian History: Focused on socio-economic aspects, means of production, and class relations.
      • Emphasis on cultural, social, and economic interrelationships among groups.

    1.9 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY

    • Societal changes often influence other spheres, breaking the boundaries between them.
    • Example: Transformation from Pastoral to Agricultural Society
      • Early Vedic Age: A pastoral society where the king was called Gopati (lord of cattle).
      • Later Vedic Age: Shift to settled agricultural society where the king became Bhupati (lord of land).
      • Consequences:
        • Wars shifted from cattle raids to land acquisition.
        • Kingship became hereditary, increasing the power and prestige of rulers.

    Areas of Study in History

    Students will learn about:

    1. Art and Architecture: Evolution of artistic expressions and monumental structures.
    2. Caste System: Development and societal impact of hierarchical structures.
    3. Science and Technology: Contributions and advancements across periods.
    4. Economy: Shifts in trade, agriculture, and economic practices.
    5. Religion and Rituals: Rise and spread of religious sects, philosophies, and practices.

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